1 00:00:08,833 --> 00:00:11,083 [mysterious music] 2 00:00:13,708 --> 00:00:17,041 Would you believe that one of America's greatest presidents 3 00:00:17,042 --> 00:00:19,874 was a pioneer in the wrestling ring? 4 00:00:19,875 --> 00:00:21,249 [crowd cheers] 5 00:00:21,250 --> 00:00:24,207 - Wrestling today is a billion dollar spectacle, 6 00:00:24,208 --> 00:00:26,416 and you've got all these iconic moves 7 00:00:26,417 --> 00:00:28,666 that have developed over time. 8 00:00:28,667 --> 00:00:31,916 - But the chokeslam traces its origins back 9 00:00:31,917 --> 00:00:34,541 to a rather unexpected figure. 10 00:00:34,542 --> 00:00:36,957 - Or that peregrine falcons owe their existence 11 00:00:36,958 --> 00:00:39,041 to one of the weirdest creation stories 12 00:00:39,042 --> 00:00:40,916 in the animal kingdom. 13 00:00:40,917 --> 00:00:43,041 - The origin of these falcons is 14 00:00:43,042 --> 00:00:45,707 a strange form of breeding, 15 00:00:45,708 --> 00:00:48,249 the falcon copulation hat. 16 00:00:48,250 --> 00:00:51,207 - This hat is not worn by the falcon, 17 00:00:51,208 --> 00:00:53,083 it's worn by a human being. 18 00:00:54,083 --> 00:00:58,082 - How about the twisted tale behind a popular phrase? 19 00:00:58,083 --> 00:00:59,832 - If someone is accused 20 00:00:59,833 --> 00:01:01,874 of speaking out against the government, 21 00:01:01,875 --> 00:01:04,207 a king or queen could order 22 00:01:04,208 --> 00:01:06,874 that that person's tongue is cut out. 23 00:01:06,875 --> 00:01:09,666 - To make sure that the message was 24 00:01:09,667 --> 00:01:12,166 transmitted to the rest of the population, 25 00:01:12,167 --> 00:01:16,457 the tongue would be fed to a royal cat. 26 00:01:16,458 --> 00:01:17,666 [cat yowls] 27 00:01:17,667 --> 00:01:20,707 - These are the origin stories so strange, 28 00:01:20,708 --> 00:01:23,667 they can only be described as unbelievable. 29 00:01:24,708 --> 00:01:27,042 [dramatic music] 30 00:01:37,083 --> 00:01:38,499 Wars have been started 31 00:01:38,500 --> 00:01:41,832 over some of the most unimaginable things: 32 00:01:41,833 --> 00:01:44,999 tea, pigs, even pastries. 33 00:01:45,000 --> 00:01:47,457 But one war stands above the rest 34 00:01:47,458 --> 00:01:50,083 when it comes to its bizarre beginnings. 35 00:01:51,125 --> 00:01:52,999 - It's the early 18th century, 36 00:01:53,000 --> 00:01:55,332 Spain and England are 37 00:01:55,333 --> 00:01:57,416 wrestling over who will control 38 00:01:57,417 --> 00:02:00,417 the vast resources of the North American continent. 39 00:02:00,418 --> 00:02:03,457 - Spain feels very strongly that they are 40 00:02:03,458 --> 00:02:08,124 100% entitled to control of trade in the Atlantic 41 00:02:08,125 --> 00:02:10,166 because they keep telling everybody, 42 00:02:10,167 --> 00:02:11,875 "We discovered America." 43 00:02:13,125 --> 00:02:16,082 There is a tenuous treaty that's developed 44 00:02:16,083 --> 00:02:17,374 called the Treaty of Seville, 45 00:02:17,375 --> 00:02:19,624 and as part of this treaty, 46 00:02:19,625 --> 00:02:23,207 Spain is given the privileges to board 47 00:02:23,208 --> 00:02:25,874 any British ships and inspect them. 48 00:02:25,875 --> 00:02:27,124 - [Dan] Britain plays nice 49 00:02:27,125 --> 00:02:29,416 until a hotheaded captain named Robert Jenkins 50 00:02:29,417 --> 00:02:31,999 sails in around 1731. 51 00:02:32,000 --> 00:02:33,457 - Captain Jenkins is in charge 52 00:02:33,458 --> 00:02:36,416 of an actual smuggling ship called the Rebecca, 53 00:02:36,417 --> 00:02:39,249 and the Spanish board and investigate 54 00:02:39,250 --> 00:02:42,707 the ship to seize contraband and smuggled items. 55 00:02:42,708 --> 00:02:44,916 - Instantly, there's a lot of tension. 56 00:02:44,917 --> 00:02:46,416 People start yelling. 57 00:02:46,417 --> 00:02:48,124 [crowd shouts indistinctly] 58 00:02:48,125 --> 00:02:49,541 There's a language barrier, 59 00:02:49,542 --> 00:02:51,916 so they're yelling at each other in languages 60 00:02:51,917 --> 00:02:53,917 the other crews cannot understand. 61 00:02:53,918 --> 00:02:57,041 - In the middle of this chaos and confusion, 62 00:02:57,042 --> 00:02:59,291 one of the Spaniards draws a sword 63 00:02:59,292 --> 00:03:01,791 and wields it in such a way 64 00:03:01,792 --> 00:03:02,957 [sword swooshes] 65 00:03:02,958 --> 00:03:05,375 that he slices off Jenkins' ear. 66 00:03:06,875 --> 00:03:08,457 Jenkins stumbles backwards. 67 00:03:08,458 --> 00:03:11,457 He's gushing blood out of the side of his head, 68 00:03:11,458 --> 00:03:14,707 and the Spaniard then castigates him by saying, 69 00:03:14,708 --> 00:03:17,249 "Pick up your bloody ear and take it back to England 70 00:03:17,250 --> 00:03:19,749 as a lesson to you people that this is what happens 71 00:03:19,750 --> 00:03:21,800 when you challenge Spanish authority." 72 00:03:23,083 --> 00:03:25,749 - Jenkins does indeed pick up his ear 73 00:03:25,750 --> 00:03:30,166 and he decides, fine, we're gonna sail back to England, 74 00:03:30,167 --> 00:03:32,291 but he doesn't go right to his superiors 75 00:03:32,292 --> 00:03:34,291 and tell them what happened. 76 00:03:34,292 --> 00:03:36,332 It's unclear whether he's embarrassed or what, 77 00:03:36,333 --> 00:03:37,874 but he does keep that ear. 78 00:03:37,875 --> 00:03:41,124 He actually puts it in a jar and has it preserved. 79 00:03:41,125 --> 00:03:43,124 - [Dan] It might seem like a strange keepsake, 80 00:03:43,125 --> 00:03:44,374 but seven years later, 81 00:03:44,375 --> 00:03:46,582 Jenkins' preserved ear becomes the spark 82 00:03:46,583 --> 00:03:48,167 Britain's been waiting for. 83 00:03:49,250 --> 00:03:52,082 - The trade conflict with Spain is 84 00:03:52,083 --> 00:03:54,707 reaching a boiling point 85 00:03:54,708 --> 00:03:59,291 and Jenkins is summoned to the House of Commons 86 00:03:59,292 --> 00:04:03,374 to testify about Spanish transgressions. 87 00:04:03,375 --> 00:04:06,541 - With Jenkins clutching the jar in one hand 88 00:04:06,542 --> 00:04:09,207 with his severed ear floating around inside of it, 89 00:04:09,208 --> 00:04:12,124 he relates the happenings of that day on Rebecca 90 00:04:12,125 --> 00:04:13,916 to the members of the House of Commons, 91 00:04:13,917 --> 00:04:17,124 telling the story in the most animated way possible 92 00:04:17,125 --> 00:04:20,916 and it has the desired effect of filling them with outrage. 93 00:04:20,917 --> 00:04:23,166 It is then widely reported 94 00:04:23,167 --> 00:04:26,625 in the popular press and reaches the people. 95 00:04:27,625 --> 00:04:30,582 - The English decide, we gotta teach Spain a lesson. 96 00:04:30,583 --> 00:04:33,625 They are ready for blood at this point. 97 00:04:34,917 --> 00:04:38,041 So they set sail and they invade 98 00:04:38,042 --> 00:04:40,624 the Port of La Guaira in Venezuela 99 00:04:40,625 --> 00:04:43,792 and thus begins the War of Jenkins' Ear. 100 00:04:46,208 --> 00:04:49,499 - This war stretches on for nine years. 101 00:04:49,500 --> 00:04:53,082 407 ships on both sides are destroyed 102 00:04:53,083 --> 00:04:56,874 and over 55,000 have lost their lives. 103 00:04:56,875 --> 00:04:59,124 England has gained nothing. 104 00:04:59,125 --> 00:05:02,250 It's a little bit of a waste of a severed ear if you ask me. 105 00:05:02,251 --> 00:05:06,166 - [Dan] Of the hundreds of thousands of people involved 106 00:05:06,167 --> 00:05:07,707 in the conflict, 107 00:05:07,708 --> 00:05:10,333 one person is conspicuously absent. 108 00:05:11,542 --> 00:05:14,457 - Interestingly, Jenkins himself, a master seaman, 109 00:05:14,458 --> 00:05:16,957 never fights in the War of Jenkins' Ear. 110 00:05:16,958 --> 00:05:20,082 He never fights in his own war. 111 00:05:20,083 --> 00:05:22,541 After his performance in parliament, 112 00:05:22,542 --> 00:05:25,707 he essentially disappears from the historical record. 113 00:05:25,708 --> 00:05:28,291 Some speculate that Jenkins could just have been a blowhard, 114 00:05:28,292 --> 00:05:29,499 a storyteller. 115 00:05:29,500 --> 00:05:32,249 Maybe he lost his ear in a pub brawl. 116 00:05:32,250 --> 00:05:33,791 But none of that actually matters 117 00:05:33,792 --> 00:05:36,582 because it catalyzed the British public to fight 118 00:05:36,583 --> 00:05:41,042 against the hated Spanish and wage a nine-year long war. 119 00:05:42,583 --> 00:05:46,374 - An ear isn't the only trivial thing to start a war. 120 00:05:46,375 --> 00:05:49,541 Next up, how one tiny tale sparked 121 00:05:49,542 --> 00:05:51,292 an international incident. 122 00:05:53,375 --> 00:05:55,332 - In the first Balkan war, 123 00:05:55,333 --> 00:05:58,332 Greece and Bulgaria are allies. 124 00:05:58,333 --> 00:06:01,374 They fight together to defeat the Ottomans 125 00:06:01,375 --> 00:06:04,874 and take over huge chunks of land 126 00:06:04,875 --> 00:06:07,124 in Thrace and Macedonia. 127 00:06:07,125 --> 00:06:09,124 But there's a problem. 128 00:06:09,125 --> 00:06:11,541 Once they have become the victors, 129 00:06:11,542 --> 00:06:14,875 then the question comes of, okay, who gets what? 130 00:06:15,875 --> 00:06:18,707 - So after overthrowing the Ottoman Empire, 131 00:06:18,708 --> 00:06:22,249 Greece and Bulgaria get into their own war 132 00:06:22,250 --> 00:06:23,541 against each other, 133 00:06:23,542 --> 00:06:25,458 the Second Balkan War. 134 00:06:27,042 --> 00:06:29,874 - This fighting between Greece and Bulgaria goes on 135 00:06:29,875 --> 00:06:31,124 for a long time, 136 00:06:31,125 --> 00:06:33,999 right through the First World War. 137 00:06:34,000 --> 00:06:35,374 But when the war ends, 138 00:06:35,375 --> 00:06:37,957 it's almost like the whole world collectively takes 139 00:06:37,958 --> 00:06:39,374 a little breather, 140 00:06:39,375 --> 00:06:42,374 and for seven years there is 141 00:06:42,375 --> 00:06:45,874 this very fragile sense of peace in the region. 142 00:06:45,875 --> 00:06:48,916 - [Dan] That is, until one unlikely catalyst 143 00:06:48,917 --> 00:06:50,042 crosses the line. 144 00:06:51,417 --> 00:06:53,791 - On October 19th, 1925, 145 00:06:53,792 --> 00:06:56,707 a Greek soldier stationed at his post, 146 00:06:56,708 --> 00:07:00,291 which is across the border from Petrich in Bulgaria, 147 00:07:00,292 --> 00:07:02,291 has this dog that's become his buddy. 148 00:07:02,292 --> 00:07:03,582 It was just a stray, 149 00:07:03,583 --> 00:07:05,753 but they've clearly kind of become family. 150 00:07:06,542 --> 00:07:08,416 - The dog at one point, though, 151 00:07:08,417 --> 00:07:11,416 unaware of political boundaries, 152 00:07:11,417 --> 00:07:13,291 wanders away from the guard shack 153 00:07:13,292 --> 00:07:15,500 toward the Bulgarian border. 154 00:07:16,875 --> 00:07:19,749 The Greek soldier comes out and cries out after the dog 155 00:07:19,750 --> 00:07:21,916 and continues calling him back 156 00:07:21,917 --> 00:07:25,417 even after the dog has crossed the border into Bulgaria, 157 00:07:25,418 --> 00:07:29,666 and the Bulgarians on the other side of the border interpret 158 00:07:29,667 --> 00:07:32,667 this as an act of war, 159 00:07:33,917 --> 00:07:35,541 and they open fire, 160 00:07:35,542 --> 00:07:37,499 [gunfire bangs] 161 00:07:37,500 --> 00:07:39,124 killing the Greek soldier. 162 00:07:39,125 --> 00:07:42,249 - After hearing the shots, other Greek soldiers run over 163 00:07:42,250 --> 00:07:44,541 and they open fire on the Bulgarians. 164 00:07:44,542 --> 00:07:47,291 A Greek captain intercedes and he tries to make peace, 165 00:07:47,292 --> 00:07:48,750 but the Bulgarians 166 00:07:49,667 --> 00:07:51,833 [gunshot bangs] shoot him dead. 167 00:07:52,750 --> 00:07:54,541 - In response to the incident, 168 00:07:54,542 --> 00:07:57,707 the Greek prime minister, Theodoros Pangalos, demands 169 00:07:57,708 --> 00:08:02,249 that the Bulgarian government pay a sum of $95,000 170 00:08:02,250 --> 00:08:04,792 to the family of the dead soldier. 171 00:08:06,042 --> 00:08:10,916 In today's dollars, that would amount to 1.7 million. 172 00:08:10,917 --> 00:08:14,499 - [Dan] When Bulgaria refuses to pay within 48 hours, 173 00:08:14,500 --> 00:08:17,030 Greece launches a swift and aggressive response. 174 00:08:18,042 --> 00:08:19,666 [gunfire bangs] 175 00:08:19,667 --> 00:08:22,707 - The Greeks pillage and loot the town of Petrich, 176 00:08:22,708 --> 00:08:24,374 and end up occupying several villages 177 00:08:24,375 --> 00:08:26,124 in the immediate vicinity of it, 178 00:08:26,125 --> 00:08:29,041 thus beginning the War of the Stray Dog. 179 00:08:29,042 --> 00:08:31,249 - After days of bloodshed, 180 00:08:31,250 --> 00:08:34,707 and 50, mostly Bulgarian deaths, 181 00:08:34,708 --> 00:08:37,832 Bulgaria appeals to the League of Nations for help. 182 00:08:37,833 --> 00:08:41,374 The League of Nations orders an immediate ceasefire 183 00:08:41,375 --> 00:08:43,541 and orders the Greeks to leave. 184 00:08:43,542 --> 00:08:45,749 When the Greek army doesn't, 185 00:08:45,750 --> 00:08:47,749 the League of Nations sends in their own troops 186 00:08:47,750 --> 00:08:49,125 to forcibly remove them. 187 00:08:50,542 --> 00:08:52,666 And on October 29th, 188 00:08:52,667 --> 00:08:55,874 10 days after a soldier's wayward pooch strayed 189 00:08:55,875 --> 00:08:57,124 over the border, 190 00:08:57,125 --> 00:09:00,457 the War of the Stray Dog is finally over. 191 00:09:00,458 --> 00:09:01,791 [crowd cheers] 192 00:09:01,792 --> 00:09:04,249 - In the end, Greece is found at fault 193 00:09:04,250 --> 00:09:05,916 for invading Petrich 194 00:09:05,917 --> 00:09:08,207 and the country is ordered to pay 195 00:09:08,208 --> 00:09:09,874 3 million Bulgarian levas, 196 00:09:09,875 --> 00:09:12,625 which is about a million dollars today. 197 00:09:13,625 --> 00:09:15,041 - As for the dog, 198 00:09:15,042 --> 00:09:17,416 let's hope he found himself a new home, 199 00:09:17,417 --> 00:09:19,792 somewhere outside of a war zone. 200 00:09:21,646 --> 00:09:25,791 - Have you ever been on a treadmill at the gym 201 00:09:25,792 --> 00:09:27,166 and thought, "This is torture?" 202 00:09:27,167 --> 00:09:28,916 Well, that's because this machine you love to hate 203 00:09:28,917 --> 00:09:30,542 has some punishing origins. 204 00:09:32,250 --> 00:09:34,707 - In the 1800s in Britain, 205 00:09:34,708 --> 00:09:37,666 the death penalty isn't just reserved 206 00:09:37,667 --> 00:09:41,457 for the highest of crimes like murder or treason. 207 00:09:41,458 --> 00:09:44,374 It's used for pretty much anything. 208 00:09:44,375 --> 00:09:45,874 If you do something wrong, 209 00:09:45,875 --> 00:09:48,166 there's a solid chance that you are going to be 210 00:09:48,167 --> 00:09:49,624 executed by the state. 211 00:09:49,625 --> 00:09:51,166 [crowd shouting] 212 00:09:51,167 --> 00:09:52,666 By the early 1820s, 213 00:09:52,667 --> 00:09:55,207 the British public start to criticize this. 214 00:09:55,208 --> 00:09:57,624 They say, you know, maybe we shouldn't just kill 215 00:09:57,625 --> 00:10:00,166 anyone for any minor infraction. 216 00:10:00,167 --> 00:10:01,749 And so by 1823, 217 00:10:01,750 --> 00:10:04,624 the Judgment of Death Act comes out, 218 00:10:04,625 --> 00:10:07,624 which allows judges the freedom 219 00:10:07,625 --> 00:10:10,250 to not have someone executed. 220 00:10:12,042 --> 00:10:14,957 - Although there are far fewer executions, 221 00:10:14,958 --> 00:10:17,832 you now have far more prisoners. 222 00:10:17,833 --> 00:10:20,582 British jails are overcrowded 223 00:10:20,583 --> 00:10:23,374 and the prison population is 224 00:10:23,375 --> 00:10:28,792 a large cohort of bored men with very little to do all day. 225 00:10:29,750 --> 00:10:32,957 - [Dan] Meanwhile, around the same time in 1818, 226 00:10:32,958 --> 00:10:35,374 a civil engineer named William Cubitt invents 227 00:10:35,375 --> 00:10:38,583 a device to help farmers grind grain called the tread wheel. 228 00:10:39,958 --> 00:10:42,582 - Farm laborers line up in a row and walk in unison, 229 00:10:42,583 --> 00:10:44,207 thus turning the cylinder, 230 00:10:44,208 --> 00:10:47,541 which is attached to a shaft, then grinds meal. 231 00:10:47,542 --> 00:10:48,874 There's one problem with the tread wheel, 232 00:10:48,875 --> 00:10:50,499 which is that it's very labor intensive. 233 00:10:50,500 --> 00:10:53,541 You need a lot of men to operate over a very long period of time. 234 00:10:53,542 --> 00:10:55,666 It's not very cost effective. 235 00:10:55,667 --> 00:10:56,874 - [Dan] But William Cubitt has 236 00:10:56,875 --> 00:10:59,166 a clever solution for the labor shortage, 237 00:10:59,167 --> 00:11:01,625 and it comes with a captive workforce. 238 00:11:02,375 --> 00:11:03,832 - Cubitt goes to 239 00:11:03,833 --> 00:11:07,874 the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline 240 00:11:07,875 --> 00:11:11,249 and pitches this as a device to improve 241 00:11:11,250 --> 00:11:12,916 the lives of all the inmates 242 00:11:12,917 --> 00:11:14,999 in these overcrowded prisons 243 00:11:15,000 --> 00:11:17,624 because they can learn the habits of industry, 244 00:11:17,625 --> 00:11:20,916 and he calls it the penal tread wheel. 245 00:11:20,917 --> 00:11:23,707 - [Dan] Prison officials fall in love with the idea, 246 00:11:23,708 --> 00:11:25,541 and start putting them in penitentiaries 247 00:11:25,542 --> 00:11:27,374 all around London. 248 00:11:27,375 --> 00:11:29,749 - By 1824, you've got 249 00:11:29,750 --> 00:11:32,707 54 penal treadmills in prisons all across Britain, 250 00:11:32,708 --> 00:11:33,791 three in Wales. 251 00:11:33,792 --> 00:11:35,624 Some of them are used to grind grain, 252 00:11:35,625 --> 00:11:37,917 but others just for the pure punishment. 253 00:11:39,167 --> 00:11:42,332 This is the very definition of hard labor. 254 00:11:42,333 --> 00:11:43,999 You'll have about 20 prisoners 255 00:11:44,000 --> 00:11:48,416 and they will walk anywhere from six to 10 hours, 256 00:11:48,417 --> 00:11:52,207 walking the equivalent of halfway up Mount Everest. 257 00:11:52,208 --> 00:11:54,958 We're talking about a little over 16,000 feet. 258 00:11:56,875 --> 00:12:00,749 - It causes exhaustion, rheumatism. 259 00:12:00,750 --> 00:12:02,874 There are also grave accidents, 260 00:12:02,875 --> 00:12:06,874 sometimes badly constructed tread wheels collapse, 261 00:12:06,875 --> 00:12:09,166 causing serious injury, 262 00:12:09,167 --> 00:12:10,333 even death. 263 00:12:11,375 --> 00:12:14,207 - In addition to the physical torture of this device, 264 00:12:14,208 --> 00:12:17,124 it's also psychologically damaging. 265 00:12:17,125 --> 00:12:20,249 Inmates are not allowed to say a word 266 00:12:20,250 --> 00:12:21,541 to anyone next to them. 267 00:12:21,542 --> 00:12:23,874 All they can do for those 10 hours is 268 00:12:23,875 --> 00:12:26,916 stare at a wall and walk. 269 00:12:26,917 --> 00:12:30,958 - [Dan] Over time, however, the treadmill runs its course. 270 00:12:32,208 --> 00:12:36,916 - Finally, the Prisons Act of 1898 puts a stop 271 00:12:36,917 --> 00:12:38,666 to the penal treadmill, 272 00:12:38,667 --> 00:12:41,374 saying it's too cruel, it's inhumane. 273 00:12:41,375 --> 00:12:42,791 No one's getting better 274 00:12:42,792 --> 00:12:45,666 because they're forced to walk miles on end. 275 00:12:45,667 --> 00:12:47,207 And a few years later, 276 00:12:47,208 --> 00:12:51,041 all penal treadmills are gone from the entire country. 277 00:12:51,042 --> 00:12:52,457 - [Dan] But the torture device makes 278 00:12:52,458 --> 00:12:56,125 a surprising comeback thanks to a clever reimagining. 279 00:12:56,126 --> 00:12:59,707 - A man by the name of William Edward Staub figures 280 00:12:59,708 --> 00:13:01,707 that the treadmill might actually be 281 00:13:01,708 --> 00:13:03,874 something that could be pretty good exercise. 282 00:13:03,875 --> 00:13:06,916 And so in 1960, he develops and introduces 283 00:13:06,917 --> 00:13:09,166 the first ever commercial treadmill. 284 00:13:09,167 --> 00:13:11,166 Now, we can't say for certain 285 00:13:11,167 --> 00:13:13,832 that William Staub looked at the penal treadmill 286 00:13:13,833 --> 00:13:15,541 and used that as his inspiration, 287 00:13:15,542 --> 00:13:18,166 but a lot of the mechanics are 288 00:13:18,167 --> 00:13:20,500 pretty similar to that penal treadmill. 289 00:13:22,292 --> 00:13:24,832 - If the treadmill was built to keep you moving, 290 00:13:24,833 --> 00:13:27,417 this next move is designed to stop you cold. 291 00:13:28,500 --> 00:13:30,749 [crowd cheers] 292 00:13:30,750 --> 00:13:34,374 - Wrestling today is a billion-dollar spectacle. 293 00:13:34,375 --> 00:13:36,957 You've got stadiums that are packed to the rafters 294 00:13:36,958 --> 00:13:39,249 with tens of thousands of spectators 295 00:13:39,250 --> 00:13:42,832 all watching to see what crazy moves 296 00:13:42,833 --> 00:13:44,832 these performers are gonna be doing in the ring. 297 00:13:44,833 --> 00:13:47,249 And one that has become 298 00:13:47,250 --> 00:13:50,458 probably the most iconic is the chokeslam. 299 00:13:51,792 --> 00:13:53,249 [body thuds] 300 00:13:53,250 --> 00:13:55,832 - Some people contend that it traces its origins 301 00:13:55,833 --> 00:13:58,332 back to a rather unexpected figure, 302 00:13:58,333 --> 00:14:01,208 the great emancipator himself, Abraham Lincoln. 303 00:14:01,209 --> 00:14:04,041 - [Dan] Long before he was president, 304 00:14:04,042 --> 00:14:06,957 Lincoln was just a kid trying to survive 305 00:14:06,958 --> 00:14:08,917 and learning to fight back. 306 00:14:10,292 --> 00:14:14,332 - Abe Lincoln is born in a one-room cabin in Kentucky. 307 00:14:14,333 --> 00:14:17,957 Abe's mother dies when he's young ,of milk sickness. 308 00:14:17,958 --> 00:14:21,458 His father is a brutal man, frequently beats him. 309 00:14:22,667 --> 00:14:26,457 He grows into a gangly, lanky young man 310 00:14:26,458 --> 00:14:28,707 with a high, squeaky voice, 311 00:14:28,708 --> 00:14:30,749 and it seems everywhere he goes, 312 00:14:30,750 --> 00:14:34,207 he is an easy target for bullies. 313 00:14:34,208 --> 00:14:36,207 - But he's fighting in the streets 314 00:14:36,208 --> 00:14:38,582 and this slowly but surely develops 315 00:14:38,583 --> 00:14:42,167 an ability we wouldn't suspect of our late president. 316 00:14:43,167 --> 00:14:45,541 - [Dan] By his early 20s, the once-scrawny boy 317 00:14:45,542 --> 00:14:48,374 has grown into a 6'4" powerhouse. 318 00:14:48,375 --> 00:14:52,791 - Abe leaves home, relocates to New Salem, Illinois, 319 00:14:52,792 --> 00:14:56,582 and becomes friendly with a local man named William Berry. 320 00:14:56,583 --> 00:14:58,541 Berry is a town drunk, 321 00:14:58,542 --> 00:15:00,957 but he also wants to open a bar. 322 00:15:00,958 --> 00:15:03,499 They form a partnership and they open 323 00:15:03,500 --> 00:15:04,583 Berry and Lincoln's. 324 00:15:05,750 --> 00:15:07,749 The bar is a rough establishment. 325 00:15:07,750 --> 00:15:10,791 Abe has to both tend bar and serve 326 00:15:10,792 --> 00:15:13,999 as bouncer, getting rid of rowdy drunks. 327 00:15:14,000 --> 00:15:15,374 - One night at the bar, 328 00:15:15,375 --> 00:15:18,041 there's a promoter and he sees Lincoln wrestling 329 00:15:18,042 --> 00:15:19,874 some of these rough and tumble kind of guys, 330 00:15:19,875 --> 00:15:21,374 and he tells him, "You know what? 331 00:15:21,375 --> 00:15:22,957 I really think that you would make a splash 332 00:15:22,958 --> 00:15:24,041 on the wrestling scene." 333 00:15:24,042 --> 00:15:25,541 - [Dan] And just like that, 334 00:15:25,542 --> 00:15:28,916 Abraham Lincoln, the professional wrestler, is born. 335 00:15:28,917 --> 00:15:30,999 - Abe's bouncing around Illinois, 336 00:15:31,000 --> 00:15:32,832 making a name for himself. 337 00:15:32,833 --> 00:15:34,041 - Over the course of a decade, 338 00:15:34,042 --> 00:15:37,082 Abe Lincoln wrestles in 300 matches 339 00:15:37,083 --> 00:15:39,250 and only loses a single bout. 340 00:15:39,251 --> 00:15:42,207 - [Dan] Key to his near-perfect record, 341 00:15:42,208 --> 00:15:46,083 a signature finishing move first seen in 1831. 342 00:15:47,417 --> 00:15:49,832 - In New Salem, you have a local gang called 343 00:15:49,833 --> 00:15:52,041 the Clary's Grove Boys, 344 00:15:52,042 --> 00:15:55,541 and they're hearing about Abe Lincoln talking smack 345 00:15:55,542 --> 00:15:57,249 and saying that, you know, he's the toughest fighter 346 00:15:57,250 --> 00:15:58,541 in the frontier and stuff. 347 00:15:58,542 --> 00:16:00,707 And so the gang's leader, 348 00:16:00,708 --> 00:16:02,332 a guy by the name of Jack Armstrong, 349 00:16:02,333 --> 00:16:04,624 who is a wrestler in his own right, 350 00:16:04,625 --> 00:16:07,583 decides, "I'm gonna challenge this tall drink of water." 351 00:16:07,584 --> 00:16:10,624 - A large crowd forms around the ring, 352 00:16:10,625 --> 00:16:13,124 and at first, Abe and Jack, they're just circling around, 353 00:16:13,125 --> 00:16:15,208 both hesitant to make the first move, 354 00:16:16,042 --> 00:16:19,292 but pretty soon, it's on. 355 00:16:20,875 --> 00:16:23,791 And Abe starts dominating. 356 00:16:23,792 --> 00:16:25,666 [wrestlers grunt] 357 00:16:25,667 --> 00:16:27,791 - But it's not enough for Abe to just win the match. 358 00:16:27,792 --> 00:16:29,332 He wants to send a message. 359 00:16:29,333 --> 00:16:31,374 Lincoln takes his hand and he wraps it 360 00:16:31,375 --> 00:16:34,207 around the throat of Jack Armstrong, strangling him, 361 00:16:34,208 --> 00:16:36,041 and then Lincoln proceeds to lift 362 00:16:36,042 --> 00:16:39,500 Armstrong off of the ground and then slam. 363 00:16:42,625 --> 00:16:44,166 - [Dan] A crowd-pleasing move 364 00:16:44,167 --> 00:16:45,999 that cements Lincoln's reputation 365 00:16:46,000 --> 00:16:47,749 not just as a fighter, 366 00:16:47,750 --> 00:16:49,583 but as a leader in the making. 367 00:16:50,708 --> 00:16:52,457 - Many historians believe 368 00:16:52,458 --> 00:16:56,291 that Abe's presence in the ring helped launch 369 00:16:56,292 --> 00:16:57,832 his political career. 370 00:16:57,833 --> 00:17:01,624 When Lincoln is running for Illinois Senate in 1858, 371 00:17:01,625 --> 00:17:06,124 national news begins reporting on his wrestling career 372 00:17:06,125 --> 00:17:07,999 and it reflects well on him. 373 00:17:08,000 --> 00:17:09,541 He is a fighter. 374 00:17:09,542 --> 00:17:11,207 He is scrappy. 375 00:17:11,208 --> 00:17:14,042 He has what it takes as a politician. 376 00:17:18,375 --> 00:17:21,582 - In 1992, the rail splitter himself earns 377 00:17:21,583 --> 00:17:24,541 a postmortem career high by being inducted 378 00:17:24,542 --> 00:17:27,083 into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame. 379 00:17:28,979 --> 00:17:32,832 - Some origin stories begin with a problem, 380 00:17:32,833 --> 00:17:34,541 others with a wild idea. 381 00:17:34,542 --> 00:17:36,207 This one blends both, 382 00:17:36,208 --> 00:17:39,542 and it all hinges on one unforgettable act of teamwork. 383 00:17:41,417 --> 00:17:45,749 - For decades, the falcon has been a huge status symbol, 384 00:17:45,750 --> 00:17:49,374 and in fact, it becomes the national bird for Saudi Arabia, 385 00:17:49,375 --> 00:17:52,167 Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. 386 00:17:53,083 --> 00:17:54,541 - If you're a wealthy prince, 387 00:17:54,542 --> 00:17:57,541 or a sheik, or from a prominent family, 388 00:17:57,542 --> 00:18:00,541 you're likely gonna own one or two falcons. 389 00:18:00,542 --> 00:18:03,583 They even have beauty contests for these falcons. 390 00:18:03,584 --> 00:18:07,499 I mean, they're looking for features like who has 391 00:18:07,500 --> 00:18:09,957 the thickest ankles, the best feathers, 392 00:18:09,958 --> 00:18:12,707 the most golden hue. 393 00:18:12,708 --> 00:18:15,249 - The US white gyrfalcon are 394 00:18:15,250 --> 00:18:19,458 arguably considered the most coveted falcons on Earth. 395 00:18:21,792 --> 00:18:25,374 A purebred can go for an insane amount of money. 396 00:18:25,375 --> 00:18:28,124 - In 2001, an auction showcases 397 00:18:28,125 --> 00:18:30,041 a pure white gyrfalcon 398 00:18:30,042 --> 00:18:33,041 that goes for over a million dollars. 399 00:18:33,042 --> 00:18:35,957 In fact, as unbelievable as it sounds, 400 00:18:35,958 --> 00:18:38,541 in 2017, a falconer buys out 401 00:18:38,542 --> 00:18:42,749 an entire plane to transport his 80 falcons, 402 00:18:42,750 --> 00:18:46,374 giving each one their own seat. 403 00:18:46,375 --> 00:18:48,916 - [Dan] But getting your hands on one of these exclusive birds 404 00:18:48,917 --> 00:18:51,666 isn't as simple as it used to be. 405 00:18:51,667 --> 00:18:54,207 - The origin of these immaculate falcons 406 00:18:54,208 --> 00:18:58,041 are all thanks to a strange form of breeding, 407 00:18:58,042 --> 00:19:00,750 the falcon copulation hat. 408 00:19:02,417 --> 00:19:05,957 - This hat is not worn by the falcon. 409 00:19:05,958 --> 00:19:07,500 It's worn by a human being. 410 00:19:08,708 --> 00:19:13,207 The falconer puts on the falcon copulation hat, 411 00:19:13,208 --> 00:19:16,041 walks around the falcon's chambers 412 00:19:16,042 --> 00:19:18,374 rocking his or her head, 413 00:19:18,375 --> 00:19:22,541 imitating the call of the female falcon. 414 00:19:22,542 --> 00:19:23,707 [falcon calls] 415 00:19:23,708 --> 00:19:27,291 And somehow, that excites 416 00:19:27,292 --> 00:19:28,542 the male falcon. 417 00:19:29,458 --> 00:19:31,957 - When the falcon appears ready, 418 00:19:31,958 --> 00:19:35,207 the breeder turns his back to the male 419 00:19:35,208 --> 00:19:39,207 and the male flies down onto the copulation hat 420 00:19:39,208 --> 00:19:40,875 and attempts to mate with it. 421 00:19:42,250 --> 00:19:45,707 The dimples in the hat catch the valuable semen, 422 00:19:45,708 --> 00:19:50,667 and the breeder then uses a syringe to extract every drop. 423 00:19:51,708 --> 00:19:53,791 One tube of semen is enough to fertilize 424 00:19:53,792 --> 00:19:56,082 several falcon eggs. 425 00:19:56,083 --> 00:19:59,374 - [Dan] A month later, a bird fit for a prince is born. 426 00:19:59,375 --> 00:20:00,874 It does make you wonder though, 427 00:20:00,875 --> 00:20:02,791 why the funny hat? 428 00:20:02,792 --> 00:20:04,457 - In the 1940s, 429 00:20:04,458 --> 00:20:07,457 biologists and conservationists notice 430 00:20:07,458 --> 00:20:11,249 steep declines in peregrine falcon populations. 431 00:20:11,250 --> 00:20:15,291 The culprit is the popular insecticide, DDT. 432 00:20:15,292 --> 00:20:17,374 It accumulates in food chains 433 00:20:17,375 --> 00:20:19,124 so that predators at the top, 434 00:20:19,125 --> 00:20:20,624 like peregrine falcons, 435 00:20:20,625 --> 00:20:22,833 get a lot of it in their diet. 436 00:20:23,833 --> 00:20:28,582 The DDT weakens the structure of the shells of their eggs, 437 00:20:28,583 --> 00:20:32,541 so that simply the weight of the female sitting on her eggs 438 00:20:32,542 --> 00:20:35,457 is enough to crush them and kill the babies 439 00:20:35,458 --> 00:20:37,875 long before they have a chance to hatch. 440 00:20:37,876 --> 00:20:41,374 - [Dan] By the 1970s, the peregrine falcon is 441 00:20:41,375 --> 00:20:43,166 on the verge of extinction 442 00:20:43,167 --> 00:20:45,916 when a falconer named Lester Boyd invents 443 00:20:45,917 --> 00:20:47,333 the copulation hat. 444 00:20:47,334 --> 00:20:49,957 - The only way to save these falcons is 445 00:20:49,958 --> 00:20:52,332 to breed them in captivity. 446 00:20:52,333 --> 00:20:56,041 But a peregrine falcon isn't naturally going to want 447 00:20:56,042 --> 00:20:57,874 to mate with a hat. 448 00:20:57,875 --> 00:21:01,249 So Boyd uses a technique called sexual imprinting, 449 00:21:01,250 --> 00:21:03,791 where from a very young age, 450 00:21:03,792 --> 00:21:06,874 the falcons are trained to associate 451 00:21:06,875 --> 00:21:08,375 the hat with mating. 452 00:21:09,292 --> 00:21:10,583 - And it works. 453 00:21:11,667 --> 00:21:15,041 The population of peregrines begins to grow again 454 00:21:15,042 --> 00:21:17,207 as birds are bred in captivity 455 00:21:17,208 --> 00:21:19,874 and released back out into the wild. 456 00:21:19,875 --> 00:21:23,291 The copulation hat opens up the possibility 457 00:21:23,292 --> 00:21:25,332 for controlled breeding, 458 00:21:25,333 --> 00:21:27,041 not only of peregrines, 459 00:21:27,042 --> 00:21:28,666 but of other falcon species, 460 00:21:28,667 --> 00:21:31,332 especially in the Middle East. 461 00:21:31,333 --> 00:21:32,582 [falcon calls] 462 00:21:32,583 --> 00:21:34,457 - Sometimes preserving a species means 463 00:21:34,458 --> 00:21:36,499 putting on a funny hat. 464 00:21:36,500 --> 00:21:39,917 Other times, it means rewriting the rules of biology. 465 00:21:42,042 --> 00:21:44,416 - For decades, scientists believed 466 00:21:44,417 --> 00:21:47,707 there was no way that you could clone anything as complex 467 00:21:47,708 --> 00:21:48,916 as a mammal. 468 00:21:48,917 --> 00:21:51,166 But in 1986 in Scotland, 469 00:21:51,167 --> 00:21:54,874 scientist Ian Wilmut and his crew decide 470 00:21:54,875 --> 00:21:56,917 they're going to try it with a sheep. 471 00:21:56,918 --> 00:22:00,207 - Ian and his team attempt this technique known 472 00:22:00,208 --> 00:22:02,999 as somatic cell nuclear transfer. 473 00:22:03,000 --> 00:22:07,207 The idea is, you take the nucleus from an adult cell 474 00:22:07,208 --> 00:22:09,582 and transfer it into an egg cell. 475 00:22:09,583 --> 00:22:12,541 Inside the nucleus is the DNA 476 00:22:12,542 --> 00:22:16,416 and the DNA has the code that builds the entire sheep. 477 00:22:16,417 --> 00:22:19,207 So if you take the code and put it in a new egg, 478 00:22:19,208 --> 00:22:21,791 you're making a copy of that original sheep. 479 00:22:21,792 --> 00:22:23,457 [sheep baas] 480 00:22:23,458 --> 00:22:25,291 - For 10 years, they performed 481 00:22:25,292 --> 00:22:27,374 the same technique over and over again, 482 00:22:27,375 --> 00:22:30,207 but the scientists fail more often than they succeed. 483 00:22:30,208 --> 00:22:32,707 After 277 tries, 484 00:22:32,708 --> 00:22:37,041 only 29 of the embryos survived more than six days. 485 00:22:37,042 --> 00:22:40,832 - [Dan] Finally, on the morning of July 5th, 1996, 486 00:22:40,833 --> 00:22:44,332 Ian Wilmut wakes up to the news he has been waiting for. 487 00:22:44,333 --> 00:22:48,374 - A baby lamb that is a clone of an adult lamb 488 00:22:48,375 --> 00:22:50,457 has successfully been born, 489 00:22:50,458 --> 00:22:54,207 and they give it the name 6LL3. 490 00:22:54,208 --> 00:22:56,666 - Well, that doesn't stay for very long. 491 00:22:56,667 --> 00:22:58,791 The stockman who's helping them, 492 00:22:58,792 --> 00:23:02,041 he decides, you know, you should name this Dolly, 493 00:23:02,042 --> 00:23:04,207 after Dolly Parton. 494 00:23:04,208 --> 00:23:06,082 - [Dan] Dolly opens up the floodgates. 495 00:23:06,083 --> 00:23:09,625 Soon, scientists are cloning everything from pigs to horses, 496 00:23:10,833 --> 00:23:13,500 but one animal is more stubborn than the rest. 497 00:23:14,917 --> 00:23:17,791 - Dogs constantly prove impossible to clone, 498 00:23:17,792 --> 00:23:19,749 partly because the eggs are released 499 00:23:19,750 --> 00:23:23,874 at a much less mature stage than other mammals. 500 00:23:23,875 --> 00:23:25,707 - Finally, in 2005, 501 00:23:25,708 --> 00:23:29,166 a Korean scientist named Woo Suk Hwang cracks the code. 502 00:23:29,167 --> 00:23:31,332 Someone on the team figures out 503 00:23:31,333 --> 00:23:33,499 that there's another way to harvest the eggs. 504 00:23:33,500 --> 00:23:35,666 If they harvest them from the fallopian tubes, 505 00:23:35,667 --> 00:23:37,332 then they're gonna be much more mature, 506 00:23:37,333 --> 00:23:39,666 and now they're viable. 507 00:23:39,667 --> 00:23:44,042 - [Dan] After more than 100 attempts, one finally survives. 508 00:23:45,167 --> 00:23:46,999 - They name him Snuppy, 509 00:23:47,000 --> 00:23:50,166 which is a combination of the letters SNU, 510 00:23:50,167 --> 00:23:52,041 for Seoul National University, 511 00:23:52,042 --> 00:23:53,707 and the word puppy. 512 00:23:53,708 --> 00:23:55,124 - It's pretty amazing 513 00:23:55,125 --> 00:23:58,707 and Snuppy goes on to live a really full dog life, 514 00:23:58,708 --> 00:24:02,291 dying just 13 days after his 10th birthday. 515 00:24:02,292 --> 00:24:04,541 And his legacy lives on. 516 00:24:04,542 --> 00:24:06,957 Snuppy's DNA is used to create 517 00:24:06,958 --> 00:24:09,332 10 more clones in 2008, 518 00:24:09,333 --> 00:24:11,542 and four more in 2017. 519 00:24:16,668 --> 00:24:19,666 - Amid the chaos of World War I, 520 00:24:19,667 --> 00:24:22,707 a trend quietly took hold in bedrooms all across Britain 521 00:24:22,708 --> 00:24:25,708 and it changed how we dressed for sleep forever. 522 00:24:27,583 --> 00:24:30,957 - In the 21st century, we are very accustomed to seeing 523 00:24:30,958 --> 00:24:32,582 people in their pajamas. 524 00:24:32,583 --> 00:24:34,207 They have become a leisure garment. 525 00:24:34,208 --> 00:24:36,874 People will wear pajamas when they're out walking their dog, 526 00:24:36,875 --> 00:24:38,374 when they go to get their hair done, 527 00:24:38,375 --> 00:24:40,457 anytime they wanna be comfortable. 528 00:24:40,458 --> 00:24:42,666 But in the early 1900s, 529 00:24:42,667 --> 00:24:45,624 it was not common to see people in pajamas 530 00:24:45,625 --> 00:24:47,666 because in the Western world, 531 00:24:47,667 --> 00:24:49,125 nobody was wearing them. 532 00:24:49,434 --> 00:24:54,707 - Both men and women are wearing either night shirts 533 00:24:54,708 --> 00:24:57,874 or nightgowns down to their ankles to go to bed. 534 00:24:57,875 --> 00:25:02,499 It is unheard of for a woman to go to bed in pants. 535 00:25:02,500 --> 00:25:05,041 - [Dan] But when bombs start falling from the sky, 536 00:25:05,042 --> 00:25:08,125 the way people prepare for bed will never be the same. 537 00:25:09,333 --> 00:25:11,707 - On January 19th, 1914, 538 00:25:11,708 --> 00:25:13,874 two German Zeppelins end up dropping bombs 539 00:25:13,875 --> 00:25:16,541 on Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn 540 00:25:16,542 --> 00:25:18,041 on the Eastern British coast. 541 00:25:18,042 --> 00:25:21,249 Deadly Zeppelin attacks become a regular thing 542 00:25:21,250 --> 00:25:23,000 in daily British life. 543 00:25:24,083 --> 00:25:25,582 When these attacks occur, 544 00:25:25,583 --> 00:25:28,041 typically they're heralded by air raid sirens. 545 00:25:28,042 --> 00:25:29,582 [siren wails] 546 00:25:29,583 --> 00:25:31,374 These attacks often occur in the early morning 547 00:25:31,375 --> 00:25:32,541 or late at night, 548 00:25:32,542 --> 00:25:34,624 and people are woken from their beds 549 00:25:34,625 --> 00:25:36,708 and have to flee to air raid shelters. 550 00:25:37,875 --> 00:25:40,624 - People don't have the time to change clothes. 551 00:25:40,625 --> 00:25:44,082 It's a panic situation and you have to get to shelter. 552 00:25:44,083 --> 00:25:46,457 So this means there are all of these women 553 00:25:46,458 --> 00:25:50,541 running around the streets of London in their nightgowns, 554 00:25:50,542 --> 00:25:52,874 which pose a couple of different problems. 555 00:25:52,875 --> 00:25:56,666 For one, these nightgowns are ankle length. 556 00:25:56,667 --> 00:26:00,207 Long gowns do not lend themselves to ease of movement. 557 00:26:00,208 --> 00:26:01,791 And for another thing, 558 00:26:01,792 --> 00:26:04,666 it is not really something that most people would want 559 00:26:04,667 --> 00:26:06,208 to be seen in publicly. 560 00:26:07,708 --> 00:26:09,541 - This is an age of decorum. 561 00:26:09,542 --> 00:26:11,791 Women can't be seen in this state of undress 562 00:26:11,792 --> 00:26:13,457 running through the streets of London, 563 00:26:13,458 --> 00:26:17,667 able to be ogled by other women's husbands and strangers. 564 00:26:19,542 --> 00:26:21,832 - And that's when women's magazines start 565 00:26:21,833 --> 00:26:24,541 putting forth this idea of a solution. 566 00:26:24,542 --> 00:26:27,542 And that solution is practical nightwear. 567 00:26:27,543 --> 00:26:30,374 - Pajamas start to be sold in England 568 00:26:30,375 --> 00:26:33,749 as a sort of loose fitting jacket and pant combination. 569 00:26:33,750 --> 00:26:37,249 - The pajama suits a whole litany of needs 570 00:26:37,250 --> 00:26:39,332 in this wartime situation. 571 00:26:39,333 --> 00:26:40,916 You can run in them, 572 00:26:40,917 --> 00:26:43,916 something that you cannot do in an ankle-length nightgown. 573 00:26:43,917 --> 00:26:45,874 They have pockets sewn into them, 574 00:26:45,875 --> 00:26:48,499 so you could quickly grab valuables 575 00:26:48,500 --> 00:26:49,874 and dash out into the street. 576 00:26:49,875 --> 00:26:52,749 And most importantly, for these survivors, 577 00:26:52,750 --> 00:26:54,749 you maintain a sense of dignity 578 00:26:54,750 --> 00:26:57,333 as you are fleeing for your lives. 579 00:26:57,334 --> 00:26:59,999 - There is always a lot of talk 580 00:27:00,000 --> 00:27:02,249 about all of the technological advances 581 00:27:02,250 --> 00:27:03,916 that often come with wartime. 582 00:27:03,917 --> 00:27:06,874 So if you're listing out the advancements that we have 583 00:27:06,875 --> 00:27:08,374 thanks to World War I, 584 00:27:08,375 --> 00:27:11,332 you can put in there trench warfare, mustard gas, 585 00:27:11,333 --> 00:27:12,583 and pajamas. 586 00:27:14,375 --> 00:27:15,791 - A decade and a half later, 587 00:27:15,792 --> 00:27:17,374 the British are going to need something better 588 00:27:17,375 --> 00:27:21,374 than a comfy pair of PJs to get through an air raid. 589 00:27:21,375 --> 00:27:23,666 [tense music] 590 00:27:23,667 --> 00:27:26,207 - In 1935, there's great anxiety 591 00:27:26,208 --> 00:27:27,541 among the British people, 592 00:27:27,542 --> 00:27:29,207 because Hitler has come to power. 593 00:27:29,208 --> 00:27:30,999 He's re-arming Germany in violation 594 00:27:31,000 --> 00:27:33,041 of the Versailles Treaty from World War I, 595 00:27:33,042 --> 00:27:34,207 and the British know that one key element 596 00:27:34,208 --> 00:27:36,041 of Hitler's rearmament is 597 00:27:36,042 --> 00:27:39,292 the building of a massive air force called the Luftwaffe. 598 00:27:42,875 --> 00:27:45,624 - Adding to the anxieties are 599 00:27:45,625 --> 00:27:49,041 these intelligence reports that suggest 600 00:27:49,042 --> 00:27:53,625 that Germany is on the cusp of developing a death ray, 601 00:27:54,792 --> 00:27:57,541 an invisible beam that can vaporize 602 00:27:57,542 --> 00:28:01,042 people, buildings, maybe even entire cities. 603 00:28:01,043 --> 00:28:05,207 - It's a weapon that sounds like science fiction, 604 00:28:05,208 --> 00:28:08,082 but this is an era where even more outlandish weapons were 605 00:28:08,083 --> 00:28:09,832 actually being tested and fielded. 606 00:28:09,833 --> 00:28:12,917 So back then, it seemed quite feasible. 607 00:28:13,833 --> 00:28:15,124 - The British are stuck. 608 00:28:15,125 --> 00:28:17,957 What do you do, how do you fight a death ray? 609 00:28:17,958 --> 00:28:21,499 Well, the best defense is a good offense: 610 00:28:21,500 --> 00:28:23,582 build your own death ray. 611 00:28:23,583 --> 00:28:24,957 - [Dan] The British gather some of 612 00:28:24,958 --> 00:28:27,166 the most brilliant scientific minds on the planet 613 00:28:27,167 --> 00:28:28,541 and get to work. 614 00:28:28,542 --> 00:28:31,749 - What would it take to create a radiation or particle beam 615 00:28:31,750 --> 00:28:34,707 that could be used to shoot down attacking aircraft? 616 00:28:34,708 --> 00:28:36,541 The idea is that this weapon could 617 00:28:36,542 --> 00:28:38,082 cook the pilot, killing him, 618 00:28:38,083 --> 00:28:41,249 or could be used to detonate a bomb onboard the aircraft. 619 00:28:41,250 --> 00:28:43,874 This team spends months running the numbers, 620 00:28:43,875 --> 00:28:46,249 doing simulations, and guess what? 621 00:28:46,250 --> 00:28:48,124 They come up with nothing. 622 00:28:48,125 --> 00:28:50,582 - Their experts can't come up with a solution. 623 00:28:50,583 --> 00:28:52,582 So they turn to the general public 624 00:28:52,583 --> 00:28:54,708 and they have a contest, 625 00:28:55,667 --> 00:28:57,499 who can figure out the death ray? 626 00:28:57,500 --> 00:29:01,166 It's sort of like crowdsourcing your ultimate weapon. 627 00:29:01,167 --> 00:29:04,297 - [Dan] Unfortunately, British civilians also come up short. 628 00:29:06,000 --> 00:29:08,624 - In a last-ditch effort, 629 00:29:08,625 --> 00:29:10,749 the British Air Ministry turns 630 00:29:10,750 --> 00:29:14,749 to a celebrated and renowned radio engineer 631 00:29:14,750 --> 00:29:17,207 who works with the BBC Radio Service, 632 00:29:17,208 --> 00:29:19,207 Robert Watson-Watt. 633 00:29:19,208 --> 00:29:23,082 They ask him how high of a frequency would it take 634 00:29:23,083 --> 00:29:26,416 to literally melt an airplane out of the sky? 635 00:29:26,417 --> 00:29:30,832 The laws of physics simply say, "Not gonna happen," 636 00:29:30,833 --> 00:29:34,041 and that's because the radio waves that you send 637 00:29:34,042 --> 00:29:37,457 towards the aircraft just bounce off. 638 00:29:37,458 --> 00:29:39,999 But it's in these calculations 639 00:29:40,000 --> 00:29:44,957 that Watson-Watt has a real, genuine eureka moment. 640 00:29:44,958 --> 00:29:47,541 - These radio waves that bounce off of targets 641 00:29:47,542 --> 00:29:49,166 can be picked up by antenna. 642 00:29:49,167 --> 00:29:50,541 By measuring the time it takes 643 00:29:50,542 --> 00:29:51,916 for the signal to return, 644 00:29:51,917 --> 00:29:54,166 Watson-Watt can calculate the relative position 645 00:29:54,167 --> 00:29:55,291 of the aircraft. 646 00:29:55,292 --> 00:29:56,999 So this means they might be able to detect 647 00:29:57,000 --> 00:29:59,830 invading aircraft long before they can see or hear them. 648 00:29:59,831 --> 00:30:01,999 - [Dan] Cautious but intrigued, 649 00:30:02,000 --> 00:30:04,230 the Air Ministry requests a demonstration. 650 00:30:06,542 --> 00:30:10,707 - On February 26th, 1935, the Royal Air Force takes 651 00:30:10,708 --> 00:30:12,957 an old bomber and they fly it 652 00:30:12,958 --> 00:30:15,707 between two BBC radio masts that are positioned 653 00:30:15,708 --> 00:30:16,957 six miles apart. 654 00:30:16,958 --> 00:30:19,582 Positioned between these two towers sits 655 00:30:19,583 --> 00:30:21,166 Robert Watson-Watt, his assistant, 656 00:30:21,167 --> 00:30:23,041 and an Air Ministry official. 657 00:30:23,042 --> 00:30:25,207 They sit in front of a cathode ray tube 658 00:30:25,208 --> 00:30:27,374 with a green indicator light. 659 00:30:27,375 --> 00:30:30,749 Over and over again as the bomber passes overhead, 660 00:30:30,750 --> 00:30:32,916 the green light turns on. 661 00:30:32,917 --> 00:30:34,916 While this was no death ray, 662 00:30:34,917 --> 00:30:36,957 these three men alone are 663 00:30:36,958 --> 00:30:39,292 essentially seeing the dawn of radar. 664 00:30:40,458 --> 00:30:41,666 - This is crazy. 665 00:30:41,667 --> 00:30:45,249 There can be a plane so far away that no naked eye, 666 00:30:45,250 --> 00:30:47,582 no pair of binoculars could ever pick it up, 667 00:30:47,583 --> 00:30:49,874 and yet by sending out radio signals 668 00:30:49,875 --> 00:30:51,749 and waiting for them to come back, 669 00:30:51,750 --> 00:30:53,124 you can pick it out of the sky. 670 00:30:53,125 --> 00:30:55,958 It's like a comic book superpower. 671 00:30:58,083 --> 00:31:01,207 - [Dan] Four years later, radar proves its worth, 672 00:31:01,208 --> 00:31:04,041 empowering an outmatched British Air Force to outwit 673 00:31:04,042 --> 00:31:06,416 and outlast the mightier Luftwaffe 674 00:31:06,417 --> 00:31:07,833 in the Battle of Britain. 675 00:31:09,375 --> 00:31:12,707 - Radar technology today is ubiquitous on the planet. 676 00:31:12,708 --> 00:31:14,416 It's used in our daily lives. 677 00:31:14,417 --> 00:31:17,332 We even get speeding tickets based off of it. 678 00:31:17,333 --> 00:31:19,791 It was all due to someone coming up 679 00:31:19,792 --> 00:31:22,833 with a crazy idea to build a death ray. 680 00:31:23,136 --> 00:31:26,916 - Ironic, that what started as a weapon 681 00:31:26,917 --> 00:31:28,791 to shoot down aircraft 682 00:31:28,792 --> 00:31:32,083 ends up being the greatest advancement in airline safety. 683 00:31:34,159 --> 00:31:38,041 - Choosing a best man is a major decision. 684 00:31:38,042 --> 00:31:39,541 They have important duties like holding the rings, 685 00:31:39,542 --> 00:31:41,957 making a speech that might get the groom in trouble, 686 00:31:41,958 --> 00:31:44,207 and planning a raging bachelor party. 687 00:31:44,208 --> 00:31:46,166 But the role has strayed very far 688 00:31:46,167 --> 00:31:47,625 from its original purpose. 689 00:31:49,333 --> 00:31:51,791 - In 16th century Gothic Germany, 690 00:31:51,792 --> 00:31:53,958 if you're a young man, say in your 20s, 691 00:31:54,958 --> 00:31:57,791 it's time to start thinking about taking a wife. 692 00:31:57,792 --> 00:32:00,207 However, you may be in a village 693 00:32:00,208 --> 00:32:04,874 where there are no available single women for you to marry. 694 00:32:04,875 --> 00:32:08,249 In these situations, the groom-to-be will hire 695 00:32:08,250 --> 00:32:12,041 a group of dudes known as bride knights, 696 00:32:12,042 --> 00:32:15,207 and go raid another village, 697 00:32:15,208 --> 00:32:18,832 riding horses, carrying swords, 698 00:32:18,833 --> 00:32:21,542 and from that village, kidnap a wife. 699 00:32:22,625 --> 00:32:24,291 That doesn't fly today. 700 00:32:24,292 --> 00:32:28,167 We're talking 16th century Gothic Germany. 701 00:32:28,168 --> 00:32:31,832 Once the groom and his posse of bride knights have 702 00:32:31,833 --> 00:32:34,249 obtained a bride-to-be, 703 00:32:34,250 --> 00:32:36,707 they take her to the church and attempt 704 00:32:36,708 --> 00:32:38,457 the marriage ceremony, 705 00:32:38,458 --> 00:32:40,542 but they are subject to counter attack. 706 00:32:40,543 --> 00:32:43,707 - Just remember, this woman does not wanna be 707 00:32:43,708 --> 00:32:44,957 at this wedding. 708 00:32:44,958 --> 00:32:46,582 It is a kidnapping. 709 00:32:46,583 --> 00:32:48,874 So in a lot of cases, 710 00:32:48,875 --> 00:32:52,374 the bride's family then formed their own posse 711 00:32:52,375 --> 00:32:55,167 to come and try and get the bride back. 712 00:32:55,168 --> 00:32:57,874 - During the ceremony, the couple is 713 00:32:57,875 --> 00:32:59,333 at their most vulnerable. 714 00:33:00,333 --> 00:33:03,624 Thus, the bride knights will stand assembled, 715 00:33:03,625 --> 00:33:06,041 facing the congregation. 716 00:33:06,042 --> 00:33:08,124 So if the bride's angry brothers and cousins 717 00:33:08,125 --> 00:33:09,416 burst through the door, 718 00:33:09,417 --> 00:33:11,207 the bride knights are at the ready 719 00:33:11,208 --> 00:33:15,374 and the best man is the last line of defense. 720 00:33:15,375 --> 00:33:16,666 [swords clang] 721 00:33:16,667 --> 00:33:19,957 In those days, the best in best man doesn't mean 722 00:33:19,958 --> 00:33:21,457 best friend. 723 00:33:21,458 --> 00:33:26,249 It means he's the best swordsman of the bride knights. 724 00:33:26,250 --> 00:33:29,041 - Nowadays, the best man is 725 00:33:29,042 --> 00:33:31,541 still in the same location next to the groom, 726 00:33:31,542 --> 00:33:33,999 but his job is completely different. 727 00:33:34,000 --> 00:33:35,999 He's no longer the best fighter, 728 00:33:36,000 --> 00:33:38,249 and he no longer aids in a kidnapping. 729 00:33:38,250 --> 00:33:40,125 It's become a lot more wholesome. 730 00:33:44,125 --> 00:33:46,124 - 1,500 years earlier in Greece, 731 00:33:46,125 --> 00:33:48,541 something else is being stolen, 732 00:33:48,542 --> 00:33:51,667 only it doesn't have an expert swordsman to protect it. 733 00:33:53,292 --> 00:33:57,957 - Today, vending machines are a $15 billion a year industry. 734 00:33:57,958 --> 00:34:00,582 More than 100 million people a day buy 735 00:34:00,583 --> 00:34:05,541 anything from a bag of chips to a cooked pizza, 736 00:34:05,542 --> 00:34:08,207 even underwear. 737 00:34:08,208 --> 00:34:10,457 - [Dan] But the first vending machine on the planet, 738 00:34:10,458 --> 00:34:12,207 let's just say you better not kick it 739 00:34:12,208 --> 00:34:13,957 for stealing your coins 740 00:34:13,958 --> 00:34:16,250 because it might send you straight to hell. 741 00:34:17,958 --> 00:34:19,707 - In early Christianity, 742 00:34:19,708 --> 00:34:23,499 purifying with holy water against evil spirits was 743 00:34:23,500 --> 00:34:24,624 called khernips, 744 00:34:24,625 --> 00:34:26,975 and it's something very important to worship. 745 00:34:26,976 --> 00:34:29,582 - Outside of many temples at the time, 746 00:34:29,583 --> 00:34:33,207 it's customary to have an urn or vessel of holy water, 747 00:34:33,208 --> 00:34:35,541 which people either imbibe, 748 00:34:35,542 --> 00:34:38,541 anoint themselves, or used to wash their hands 749 00:34:38,542 --> 00:34:40,249 before entering. 750 00:34:40,250 --> 00:34:42,957 - However, early Greek Christians start 751 00:34:42,958 --> 00:34:44,541 thinking that the holy water is 752 00:34:44,542 --> 00:34:48,624 a cure-all for all of life's ailments. 753 00:34:48,625 --> 00:34:53,666 As a result, churchgoers are taking the holy water at will 754 00:34:53,667 --> 00:34:58,791 and the church elders are obviously a little miffed. 755 00:34:58,792 --> 00:35:00,916 - [Dan] That's because there's not an endless supply 756 00:35:00,917 --> 00:35:02,042 at the time. 757 00:35:02,043 --> 00:35:04,541 - In the Greek church, holy water is 758 00:35:04,542 --> 00:35:07,041 produced once a year on January 6th 759 00:35:07,042 --> 00:35:08,707 in the Feast of Epiphany. 760 00:35:08,708 --> 00:35:11,499 This container of holy water is expected to last 761 00:35:11,500 --> 00:35:12,874 the entire year. 762 00:35:12,875 --> 00:35:15,416 It is not meant to be squandered. 763 00:35:15,417 --> 00:35:19,874 - The potential for a holy water drought leads 764 00:35:19,875 --> 00:35:23,707 church authorities to begin searching for solutions, 765 00:35:23,708 --> 00:35:27,124 and they turn to a very inventive figure, 766 00:35:27,125 --> 00:35:29,750 known as Hero of Alexandria. 767 00:35:31,250 --> 00:35:33,999 - Hero is this genius mathematician, 768 00:35:34,000 --> 00:35:35,707 engineer, inventor. 769 00:35:35,708 --> 00:35:38,916 He's been credited with inventing the syringe, 770 00:35:38,917 --> 00:35:40,874 the first steam engine. 771 00:35:40,875 --> 00:35:43,749 So if you need a machine, 772 00:35:43,750 --> 00:35:45,375 he's the guy to talk to. 773 00:35:46,417 --> 00:35:49,666 - Hero invents an ingenious device, 774 00:35:49,667 --> 00:35:53,707 essentially a fountain inside of a box 775 00:35:53,708 --> 00:35:59,041 that can only be activated by a compulsory donation. 776 00:35:59,042 --> 00:36:00,666 - Now that people have to pay, 777 00:36:00,667 --> 00:36:03,707 they become much more careful stewards 778 00:36:03,708 --> 00:36:05,250 of this limited resource. 779 00:36:06,375 --> 00:36:09,332 - You put a coin in the urn, it hits a lever. 780 00:36:09,333 --> 00:36:12,457 The weight of the coin releases a plunger. 781 00:36:12,458 --> 00:36:16,249 The perfectly measured dose of holy water comes out a spout. 782 00:36:16,250 --> 00:36:18,041 The plunger closes again, 783 00:36:18,042 --> 00:36:19,374 no more holy water, 784 00:36:19,375 --> 00:36:22,582 and the church gets its much-needed tithes. 785 00:36:22,583 --> 00:36:25,249 It's genius in its simplicity today, 786 00:36:25,250 --> 00:36:27,542 but for the time, it's an engineering marvel. 787 00:36:27,543 --> 00:36:31,124 - It's hard to believe the vending machine was 788 00:36:31,125 --> 00:36:33,832 created to distribute a holy sacrament, 789 00:36:33,833 --> 00:36:35,499 an incredible point to ponder 790 00:36:35,500 --> 00:36:37,500 the next time you buy a bag of chips. 791 00:36:40,701 --> 00:36:42,749 - Ever wonder where 792 00:36:42,750 --> 00:36:44,374 some of our most common expressions come from? 793 00:36:44,375 --> 00:36:46,082 Take the phrase, "cat got your tongue." 794 00:36:46,083 --> 00:36:47,707 Believe it or not, the strange history 795 00:36:47,708 --> 00:36:51,417 behind this saying might leave you lost for words. 796 00:36:54,167 --> 00:36:58,166 - Cats were widely venerated in ancient Egypt. 797 00:36:58,167 --> 00:37:01,041 Gods including Sekhmet and Bastet 798 00:37:01,042 --> 00:37:03,082 were in the image of cats. 799 00:37:03,083 --> 00:37:06,207 The creatures were considered holy 800 00:37:06,208 --> 00:37:08,707 and cats served very practical uses, 801 00:37:08,708 --> 00:37:12,792 including keeping rats and mice out of grain supplies. 802 00:37:14,042 --> 00:37:16,041 - For the wealthy and for Pharaohs, 803 00:37:16,042 --> 00:37:18,124 it's very common to keep cats on hand 804 00:37:18,125 --> 00:37:19,832 because they're believed to be 805 00:37:19,833 --> 00:37:23,124 the bringers of good fortune and protectors. 806 00:37:23,125 --> 00:37:25,041 They are so beloved in this culture 807 00:37:25,042 --> 00:37:28,374 that it is not uncommon for people to adorn them with jewels 808 00:37:28,375 --> 00:37:31,707 and dress them up as extravagantly and finely 809 00:37:31,708 --> 00:37:33,750 as any member of the royal family. 810 00:37:34,917 --> 00:37:37,291 - [Dan] Cats were not only symbols of luxury, 811 00:37:37,292 --> 00:37:39,166 they also played a crucial role 812 00:37:39,167 --> 00:37:40,833 in the criminal justice system. 813 00:37:42,333 --> 00:37:46,624 - In ancient Egypt, if someone is accused of blasphemy, 814 00:37:46,625 --> 00:37:49,249 of lying, of speaking out against the government 815 00:37:49,250 --> 00:37:51,707 or against established religion, 816 00:37:51,708 --> 00:37:54,791 they can pay a pretty steep price. 817 00:37:54,792 --> 00:37:59,041 If those accusations are deemed valid by the ruler, 818 00:37:59,042 --> 00:38:01,916 a king or queen could order 819 00:38:01,917 --> 00:38:04,624 that person's tongue is cut out. 820 00:38:04,625 --> 00:38:07,166 - In some cases, to make sure 821 00:38:07,167 --> 00:38:09,582 that the message was transmitted 822 00:38:09,583 --> 00:38:11,666 to the rest of the population, 823 00:38:11,667 --> 00:38:16,207 the tongue would be fed to a royal cat. 824 00:38:16,208 --> 00:38:18,000 [cat yowls] 825 00:38:19,958 --> 00:38:22,666 Whether or not this grisly practice is the actual 826 00:38:22,667 --> 00:38:26,457 origin of the expression, "cat got your tongue," 827 00:38:26,458 --> 00:38:30,124 it sent a pointed and decided message 828 00:38:30,125 --> 00:38:32,458 to rowdy members of the public. 829 00:38:34,000 --> 00:38:36,374 - Not every cat has it so lucky. 830 00:38:36,375 --> 00:38:39,749 If you were a South American feline in the 1300s, 831 00:38:39,750 --> 00:38:43,292 certain Aztec traditions might have you on edge. 832 00:38:44,583 --> 00:38:46,041 - In the Aztec religion, 833 00:38:46,042 --> 00:38:50,041 animals were often sacrificed to a higher power. 834 00:38:50,042 --> 00:38:51,749 Some of the most highly prized 835 00:38:51,750 --> 00:38:54,332 and valued animals for sacrifice were 836 00:38:54,333 --> 00:38:56,541 animals that were noble and bold, 837 00:38:56,542 --> 00:39:00,541 like the jaguar or the crocodile. 838 00:39:00,542 --> 00:39:04,707 But obviously, a jaguar or a crocodile could kill you 839 00:39:04,708 --> 00:39:08,957 so they're not the easiest animals to obtain. 840 00:39:08,958 --> 00:39:10,098 But there's a loophole. 841 00:39:11,375 --> 00:39:13,874 - In lieu of sacrificing actual animals, 842 00:39:13,875 --> 00:39:17,833 they create the animal in effigy, using balloons. 843 00:39:17,834 --> 00:39:20,374 - [Dan] However, they're quite different 844 00:39:20,375 --> 00:39:22,332 from the ones we see clowns making at fairs 845 00:39:22,333 --> 00:39:23,833 or birthday parties today. 846 00:39:25,167 --> 00:39:29,207 - Aztecs create these balloon animal effigies using 847 00:39:29,208 --> 00:39:33,875 cat bowels, AKA the intestines of cats. 848 00:39:35,792 --> 00:39:39,249 They discovered that pulling the entrails from a dead cat, 849 00:39:39,250 --> 00:39:40,707 turning them inside out, 850 00:39:40,708 --> 00:39:42,291 and then cleaning them up 851 00:39:42,292 --> 00:39:46,583 actually turns the intestines into a latex-like material. 852 00:39:47,792 --> 00:39:50,291 - After the cat intestines are fully prepared, 853 00:39:50,292 --> 00:39:51,707 they're cut into shape 854 00:39:51,708 --> 00:39:54,541 and then sewn together using vegetable fiber thread 855 00:39:54,542 --> 00:39:56,749 to make the overall shape of the animal 856 00:39:56,750 --> 00:39:59,041 that they wish to sacrifice. 857 00:39:59,042 --> 00:40:03,041 - [Dan] Cats were ideal but not always available. 858 00:40:03,042 --> 00:40:05,707 So, priests had to get creative. 859 00:40:05,708 --> 00:40:07,666 - Sometimes they would also use pigs. 860 00:40:07,667 --> 00:40:09,707 But when you run out of cats and pigs, 861 00:40:09,708 --> 00:40:13,000 the next best option are human intestines. 862 00:40:14,542 --> 00:40:16,707 - So next time you're blowing up balloons 863 00:40:16,708 --> 00:40:19,707 and you're complaining about the nasty latex taste, 864 00:40:19,708 --> 00:40:23,999 imagine if you were actually blowing up mammal bowels, 865 00:40:24,000 --> 00:40:25,457 pig, cat, human, whatever. 866 00:40:25,458 --> 00:40:27,082 It's nastier. 867 00:40:27,083 --> 00:40:28,750 You got the good balloons. 868 00:40:29,066 --> 00:40:32,374 - The truth behind many beginnings 869 00:40:32,375 --> 00:40:33,916 is stranger than fiction. 870 00:40:33,917 --> 00:40:36,624 The best man who started as a kidnapper, 871 00:40:36,625 --> 00:40:39,874 a funny hat integral to breeding prized falcons, 872 00:40:39,875 --> 00:40:41,582 and a president who first found fame 873 00:40:41,583 --> 00:40:43,666 chokeslamming in the wrestling ring. 874 00:40:43,667 --> 00:40:46,207 These are the origins so odd, 875 00:40:46,208 --> 00:40:48,625 they are truly unbelievable. 876 00:40:48,675 --> 00:40:53,225 Repair and Synchronization by Easy Subtitles Synchronizer 1.0.0.0